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(2018) 28:41531 e4

Although mtDNA is more prone to mutations than nuclear DNA (nDNA) due to its proximity to ROS and lack of histone protection, mitochondrial nucleoid DNA-binding proteins afford some defense, with evidence suggesting these proteins can protect mtDNA from X-ray radiation and hydrogen peroxide, akin to histones ( mtDNA is implicated in the onset and progression of COPD

Moderate stress increases glutathione levels to protect cells against more severe stress

Furthermore, Glu is not only one of the major excitatory amino acids in the brain, but also participates in the GluGln cycle, which links glucose and amino acid metabolism to synaptic transmission, cellular homeostasis, and cellular energy metabolism (Figure 1)